Introduction to General Psychology
Prepared by Aumo OKUMU
African Virtualuniversity Universile Virtuelle Africaine Universidade Virtual Africana
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Table of Contents
Notice 2
I. Introduction to General Psychology 6
Introduction 6
II. Prerequisite courses or knowledge 7
III. Time 8
Unit One (30 hours) 8
Unit Two (40 hours) 8
Unit Three (20 hours) 8
Unit Four (30 hours) 8
IV. Materials 9
V. Rationale 10
VI. Content 11
6.1 Overview 11
6.2 Unit Outline 11
6.3 Graphic Organizer 11
VII. General objectives 12
VIII. specific objectives 13
UNIT ONE: Learning Objective (s) 13
Introduction to General Psychology. Define Psychology 13
Meaning and definition of Psychology 13
Concluding Remarks 14
Schools of thought in psychology 15
Structuralism 15
Limitations 16
Learning Points 16
Functionalism 17
Learning Points 17
Behaviorism 18
Learning points 19
Summary 19
Psychoanalysis 19
Main characteristics of the Id 20
Learning Points 21
Main features of Gestalt Psychology 22
Laws of Perception 22
Learning Points 23
Unit Two: Learning Objectives 23
Readings and Useful Links: 23
Unit Three: Learning Objectives 24
Unit Four: Learning Objectives 24
IX. Teaching and learning activities 26
Pre-assessment 26
Rationale 26
Pre-assessment 26
Title of Pre-assessment: Multiple Choice Questions Exercise 26
Pedagogical Comments For Learners 29
X. learning activities 30
Important Tips 30
Activity One 30
Title: Introduction to General Psychology 30
Task Number One 30
ActivityTwo 30
Task One 31
Activity Three 31
Task One 32
Activity Four 33
Steps to follow 33
XI. Key Concepts (Glossary) 35
XII. list of Compulsory Reading 37
Reading # 1 37
Reading # 2 37
Reading # 3 37
Reading # 4 38
XIII. List of Relevant Resources 39
Wikipedia (Answers.com) History of Psychology 39
Answers.com Educational Psychology 39
Answers.com 39
Sociogram in Practice 39
Profession and You 40
About.com: Psychology 40
Classics in the history of psychology 41
A Transactional Model of the Teaching and Learning Process 41
Researching the Teaching of Educational Psychology 41
Educational Psychology 42
Teaching Concepts: Goal Setting 42
XIV. Useful links 44
Lists of Relevant useful links 44
XV. Teaching and learning activities 48
Title: Introduction to General Psychology 48
Specific Objectives: 48
Summary of Learning Activities 48
Title: General Psychology and Education 48
Specific Objectives 48
Educational Psychology 48
Title: Methods of Educational Psychology 48
Specific Objectives 48
Activity three 48
Title: Relevance of Educational Psychology 49
Specific Objectives 49
Activity Four 49
XVI. Multimedia links 50
Resource # 1 50
Resource # 2 50
Resource # 3 50
Resource # 4 50
Resource # 5 51
Resource # 6 51
XVII. Synthesis of the module 53
XVIII. Summative evaluation exercises 54
Learning Activities 54
Activity One 54
Task one 54
Activity two 54
Task two 54
Activity three 55
Activity four 55
Possible answer keys to learning activities 55
Question one 55
Question two 56
Question three 57
IX. References 59
XX. Main author of the Module 60
I. Introduction to General Psychology
Introduction
You are welcome to this module that introduces you to General Psychology first and later Educational Psychology. There are four units in all. A total of 120 hours is given which we think should be adequate for you to complete the module. The hours given should also cover the different activities as well as doing the readings that are included. A summary of the major tasks in each unit is presented for your benefit:
Unit one introduces you to the meaning, definition, origin and development of Psychology as a field of study, the different branches, concepts and its relevance to educational process. Finally the unit introduces you to the concepts, and different methods of study that are used in Educational Psychology.
Unit two discusses the relationships between Psychology and Education, and their implications to a practicing teacher. The contributions of Educational Psychology to educational practice are also presented.
Unit three presents to you issues of methods of study used in conducting studies in Educational Psychology. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are also discussed.
Unit four introduces you to the benefits of Educational Psychology to the teacher, and to educational process/practice in a school setting and society in general.
II. Prerequisite courses or knowledge
You are now beginning a journey into the field of General Psychology, more spe- cifically, Educational Psychology. You need to build strong interest in the subject and try also to see how you can make use of the subject matter in real teaching- learning situations. You need to have some elementary knowledge in Learning Theories, the different kinds of learning e.g. Signal learning, Chain learning, Verbal associate learning, Problem solving, Learning principles. Also needed is some basic knowledge on the classification of theories of learning, knowledge of the importance of motivation in teaching-learning situation, the roles of rewards and punishment in teaching and learning process. Factors that facilitate learning, human growth and development and different stages that children go through in relation to teaching and learning. The knowledge on the importance of testing in promoting effective learning by children and how best teachers can utilize tests to the maximum benefits of the children they teach. You also need to have sound knowledge about individual differences among learners in teaching-learning situations and how you can play positive roles in bridging the gaps that may be noticed among the learners. Of extreme importance is for you as a teacher to know some knowledge about children with disabilities and how best their interests an be catered for in your class.
Point to note: As you go through this module, you need to build positive attitude about this and make efforts to follow instructions given in the module.
III. Time
To make you benefit from the course, it is important the time be allotted for each of the four units. A total of 120 hours is required for you to complete these units. Each unit has been given the number of hours needed to go through successfully. You are advised to make all efforts to complete the unit within the stipulated hours.
Unit One (30 hours)
Introduction to General Psychology. Meaning and definition of Psychology. Origin, Scope and Methods of Psychology. Systems of psychology: Functiona- lism, Structuralism, Behaviorism, Psychoanalysis, Gestalt school of Psychology. Contributions to Education. Branches of Psychology.
Unit Two (40 hours)
Psychology and Education. Meaning and Definition of Education; and Educa- tional Psychology. The Relationships between Psychology and Education. The roles of Educational Psychology in education process. Scope of Educational Psychology. Contributions of Educational Psychology to Educational Theories, and Practice in Education.
Unit Three (20 hours)
Methods of Educational Psychology. Introspection, Clinical method, Survey method, Observation method, Scientific method, Experimental/ Field method. Merits and limitations associated with the different methods of study.
Unit Four (30 hours)
Benefits of Educational Psychology to a teacher in relation to: understanding human growth and development/characteristics; nature of classroom learning; individual differences among children; knowledge of mental health; intelligence; effective teaching and methods of how to succeed in teaching; curriculum construction; measurement of educational outcomes; guidance and counseling; handling of educationally exceptional learners; development of positive of at- titudes and study skills; group dynamics and behavior problems of children in general. Timetabling and educational technology in promoting effective and efficient learning.
IV. Materials
Access to the following materials is considered important for successful com- pletion of this module.
• Access to Teacher Resource Center for further reference work.
• Access to computer especially the internet and e-mail connectivity.
• Access to resource personnel for consultation purposes.
• Note books for jotting down points from private study.
• Flash for downloading relevant materials from the internet.
• Access to a printer.
• Pens and pencils.
• Study Group
• A mobile phone for contact with instructors (if one is able to acquire one).
• Audio cassettes
• Electronic recorder or simple tape recorder
V. Rationale
The study of General Psychology, Module One is considered important for teacher educators, educators and teachers for a number of reasons. Firstly is because of the need to understanding fully its influence on educational process in a number of ways. Secondly is to equip teacher educators, educators and prospectus teachers with skills and competences in the art of teaching and managing in educational activities effectively, especially dealing effectively with teaching-learning problems that arise every now and then. Thirdly is to mould the classroom teacher into an all-round person who understands himself/herself and be able to relate with others in the school and community. Fourthly is to enable the classroom teacher to understand the origin of individual differences among learners, their implications and how best each learner can be made to benefit fully from schooling.
The above points are important and relevant to you as an upcoming teacher when they are reflected within the context of teaching-learning and/or educational process. This is where Educational Psychology comes. It is therefore paramount that you acquaint yourself with the basic ideas of Educational Psychology and possible areas where its principles can be applied.
Briefly stated, Educational Psychology is an area of study that deals with how humans learn in education setting, the effectiveness of educational intervention, the psychology of teaching, and social psychology of the school as an organi- zation .It is also concerned with the process of educational attainment among children who go to school, such as the gifted, the underachievers, and those with specific disabilities. Educational Psychology informs wide range of guidelines with educational studies e.g. instructional strategies and designs, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and class management. It also draws from and contributes to cognitive science and learning science.
It is therefore important that you study the subject diligently, see the implications to you as a teacher and how best the subject can be used to the benefits of the children under your instruction and care. Additional references have been included in the module for your perusal. Make all efforts to read them.
VI. Content
6.1 Overview
The General Psychology Module has been written in simple, clear and understan- dable language and easy to read document. The module introduces you to four main units. In each unit key concepts, ideas, definitions and points; considered important are brought out for your benefit. You are also encouraged to read other publications that deal with the subject and see for yourself what these different authors say.
The module consists of four units and each unit is accompanied with four learning activities. You are first going to be introduced to key concepts, meanings and definitions of Psychology, the different branches and schools that go out to make General Psychology as a discipline of study. You are also going to be introduced to what Educational Psychology is all about, how it can contribute to your effec- tiveness in teaching in general, its relevance to educational process.
You will also be introduced to the different methods that are used in conducting studies in Educational Psychology. The different methods and their advantages and disadvantages have been presented in the module for your consumption.
To keep you on track, efforts have been made to include important reading lists or references which you must make effort to consult.
6.2 Unit Outline
Titles Number of hours
1.0 Introduction to General Psychology 30 hours
2.0 General Psychology and Education 40 hours
3.0 Methods of Educational Psychology 20 hours
4.0 Relevance/Benefits of Educational Psychology to a teacher
30 hours
6.3 Graphic Organizer
General Psychology
Introduction to General psychology Psychology and Education Methods of Educational psychology Relevance of Educational psychology
Me a ning a nd F unc tion of psy c hology
Systems of Psychology
Branches of Psychology
Meaning and definition of Educational psychology and Educational
SScope of Educat
Introspection
Clinicaal method
Survey method, merits and demerits of each method
Effective teaching
Understanding human de vt
Nature of classroom learning, individual
differences
VII. General objectives
The following are the general objectives that have been identified:
• To provide the students with insight into General Psychology as a tool of effective teaching.
• To equip students with skills for self-assessment and self-assessment improvement in teaching
• To provide students with knowledge and skills for building firm founda- tion for the different subject specializations.
VIII. specific objectives
The specific objectives in this section are tailored to purposely highlight what is expected after you have gone through each unit in the module.
Unit One
The Learning Objectives of this unit are for you to:
UNIT ONE: Learning Objective (s)
Introduction to General Psychology. Define Psychology.
State the different schools of Psychology. Identify the different branches of Psychology.
Identify the contributions of Psychology to Education.
Welcome to Unit One of this module on General psychology. It is our hope that you will enjoy going through this module and benefit from it by making use the materials in the module to help the learners benefit from your teaching abilities.
Educational Psychology has been taught as a subject in teacher education colleges, where teachers like you are the knowledge, values and skills of how to become an effective teacher, who is capable of using the principles and practices of Educational psychology to become an effective, competent and conscientious in the class. The teacher of educational psychology is that one with the understanding that the knowledge gained gives the teacher insights into the problems that occur every now and then in the teaching-learning process, and thereafter be able to develop useful professional skills and competencies to face the classroom challenges and/or problem with confidence. This means that Educational psychology is taught to teachers to prepare them to achieve the goals of teaching. In the end the teachers are able to understand, control and predict the outcomes of their teaching, and the behaviors of the learners.
Meaning and definition of Psychology
Educational psychology is a branch of Psychology. What is then Psychology? The word psychology comes from Greek word “psyche” (mind) and ‘logo’ (study). These two words literally taken, means the science of the mind/mental processes. From this statement, we can then deduce that psychology is the study of the mental processes. As an independent area of study, it only acquired the status very recently. Early psychology was regarded as the study of the soul (in the Christian sense of the term). Psychology has grown over the years to take in a number of dimensions. For example, it has become both an applied and academic discipline, which studies human mind and behavior. So those who specialize in the subject do research with the focus of seeking to understand and explain thoughts, emotion, and behavior. Psychology has also assumed other areas of application in human life. Such areas include mental health treatment, performance enhancement, and self-help.
The definition we have given above however remains in vogue. This is because there are always controversies over the meanings of words like psychology, more so when we are dealing with issues of the human mind, especially the processes that take place inside the mind. We see that human beings always engage in a number of purposeful activities from morning to evening. And as they keep themselves busy, interaction with the environment is inevitable. This interaction, coupled with environmental influences makes us sometime take psychology to be a discipline that studies consciousness or immediate experiences. Again this may be limited and opened to rejection, because it is a very minute portion of a human being.
It is also important at this juncture to have a look at the origin, development of Psychology over a period of time, until it has assumed a status of scientific discipline today.
Psychology emerged in the early times, in the times of the Greeks, from where the words ‘psyche’ and ‘logos’ originated. During the 17th century, the French philosopher by the name of Descartes introduced the idea of dualism, which asserted that the body and the mind are two entities that interact to form what we call today ‘human experience’. It was at this state in time that psychology was separated from Philosophy. As a separate discipline, it started to use scientific methods of investigation to study and draw conclusions about human beings, especially the thoughts and behavior.
Psychology as a separate discipline took roots in the mid-1800 when a German physiologist called Wilhelm Wundt employed a scientific research method to investigate reaction time. His by this time focused on the connection between the science of physiology and human thoughts and behavior. Through the labo- ratory, he established in 1879 at Leipzig, psychology for the first time assumed a separate position as distinct field of study from Philosophy, with the attention of understanding the human consciousness. This brought about a radical change and approach to the meaning, definition and application of Psychology. Thereafter all experimental studies concentrated on studying internal mental processes. The word Introspection becomes fashionable in the study of the human mental pro- cesses. Though controversies prevailed over the word introspection as a method of study of mental processes, Wundt’s method of study paved the way for future experimental studies. His method of study of course provoked other interested scientists, especially his students like Edwards Titchener who became the father of Structuralism, which we shall examine later in the module. A number of Schools of Thoughts in psychology thereafter emerged in Germany and United States of America.
Concluding Remarks
As a way of wrapping up on what we have so far said about psychology as a dis- cipline or what it is all about, its origin, historical development and status today, the following are some of the points we can deduce on Psychology as a field of study.
• Psychology today is regarded as a scientific field of study because it uses methods, materials and approaches and principles like other physical sciences (e.g. Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics etc.) to conduct experi- ments and come out with scientifically valid, reliable and verifiable facts and/or solutions to human problems.
• It seeks to clarify, explain, describe, interpret and evaluate facts concer- ning human behavior and mental processes in order to determine what govern their occurrences, hence achieving the following aims of Psycho- logy:
- Measurement and description of behavior.
- Understanding and explanation of behavior
- Improvement of behavior and conduct of society.
• Psychology as a subject of study is mainly concerned with the following:
- Activities that generate knowledge, e.g. seeing, thinking, perception.
- Emotion related issues, e.g. Laughter, crying, wellness, and feeling.
- Interpersonal relationships among individuals.
- Individual differences and personality.
- Human resource management and utilization, motivation, and personnel selection/placement.
- Normal/Abnormal behavior (psychological treatment, testing, treatment and rehabilitation.
- Guidance and counseling services to communities
(e .g in schools, mental institutions, careers and educational, orientation, and adaptation).
- Measurement and Evaluation of behavior (e.g. testing and grading of learners, promotion and validation of programs).
Schools of thought in psychology
Welcome to this section of the reading which is introducing you to what is commonly known as the Schools of Psychology. Some people at times call it the Systems of Psychology.
As a reminder, you recall in the reading in the Introduction, you read that the psychological laboratory that was established by Wilhelm Wundt in 1879 in Lei- pzig caused some controversies among his students who questioned his methods of study of human mental processes. The outcomes of his methods made other scientists interested in the field of psychology start off with independent methods of studies of their own.
In this presentation, you are going to learn more about these different schools of thought as far as the study of psychology was at the time. We are going to start with that which was founded by Wilhelm Wundt’s student, who was known as Edward B. Titchener (1867-1927).
It is very important that students come to understand the systematic development that has taken place in Psychology to the understanding of human behavior; in as far as learners are concerned. By doing this it makes it easy for the classroom teacher can easily take advantage and effect necessary changes. It may not be very easy for the teacher to know precisely how each of these different schools can or can not contribute to positive changes in the teaching-learning process. An attempt is going to be made in the presentation in a way that makes it possible for you as a teacher fish out those points you think are relevant and/or contributive to your professionalism as a teacher.
Structuralism
Structuralism as an approach to the study of internal mental processes is attri- buted to Edward B. Titchener (1867-1927), who incidentally was a student of Wilhelm Wundt.
Like his teacher and mentor, Edward B.Titchener was also interested in studying the mental processes along the line he was tutored in. He started by giving another definition of Psychology as the analytic study of the generalized adult normal human mind through introspection. To him the subject of Psychology is the immediate experiences of human beings. Therefore this meant that the main occupation of practicing psychologist is to work hard and to discover the elements and the manner in which they are compounded. This then formed the foundation of his approach, which became known as ‘structuralism’. Structuralism became very popular in Germany in the 1890’s among young psychologists. Instead of following the path of Wundt, ‘structuralists’ as they later became known; it sought to explain mental processes by studying the elements. This is because the subject matter of psychology is consciousness, and it can only be understood in terms of the structures or in terms of what it does.
The argument Titchener advanced was that it is possible to study psychology and the consciousness by breaking it down into minute parts and then systematically studying them. This definitely entails breaking up the brain and then embarking on studying the consciousness. To Titchener, consciousness is the sum total of a person’s experiences at any given time. The mental elements are then the focus of any study. Later, he divided psychology into a number of parts, which he code-na- med the various areas as child, animal, abnormal and human psychology. Despite the different areas, he strongly believed and advocated that the main objective of psychology is to study and understand human mind and structure that is by isolating elemental processes from the complexity of consciousness.
Limitations
A field of study like structuralism certainly proved its worth and also brought wraths against it. Today, psychologists look at structuralism as a historical relic. They consider it to be too narrow for any meaningful scientific field of study, because it fails to embrace all aspects of human behavior. Secondly, psychologists consider it to be anti-people’s abilities and prevent people from acting independently and consciously. Thirdly, they consider the objects and consciousness under structuralism not easily subjected to any controlled experimentation in the same way as behavior is. For example, introspection is limited and can not be subjected to any scientific investigation in a laboratory situation.
Learning Points
Despite all its limitations, structuralism has some points that can be useful in a classroom situation, more so to the teacher.
• Structuralism has contributed to the science of psychology in the context of its scientific methods of investigations. This means that one must conduct a study through careful collection and analysis of data before reaching any conclusion. The classroom teacher can also im- prove teaching-learning activities through careful collection of data, by conducting simple classroom based experimentations on aspects of teaching-learning activities through careful introspections, observation and interview, and then interpreting the findings logically.
• The teacher can also conduct elements of meta-cognition of his/her thoughts, especially those that have implications on the contents of his/her lessons.
Functionalism
Welcome to the presentation on another School of Thought. This time it is called ‘Functionalism’.
The development of functionalism as an approach to the understanding of the internal mental processes started in the United States of America, and was led by William James (1842-1910), at the University of Harvard. Again this movement was in reaction to the limitations of the methods of study developed by Edward B. Titchener and Wilhelm Wundt.
Functionalism advocated that engagement with activity is very important to the explanation of what goes inside the mental processes. This is likening to what takes place in a school situation when learners are actively doing some work. This means that functionalism is an approach that looks at thinking as taking place when a problematic situation prevails. Thinking only takes place when an organism is thwarted by some external force or obstacle.
Unlike structuralism which advanced that the systematization and explanation of elements that occur via nervous structures and a mentalist approach to the problem of human behavior and experiences, functionalism advanced that the brain is the physical devices with mental substrates that perform computations on inputs which produce behaviors. This definitely is a movement far away from what had been postulated other psychologists, the likes of Wundt and Titchener. William James was concerned with the effective functions of the brain through its organization or what is now known as ‘software programs’.
William James said in his study that mental states are constituted by their casual relationships to one another and to sensory inputs and behavioral outputs. This was a direct reaction to Edward Titchener’s ideas.
In summary, William James advanced the following points:
• Psychology as a science was to focus on the usefulness of mental abili- ties, for example in things like learning or in perception. This actually formed the foundation of his functionalism.
• Consciousness is an everyday thing or occurrences, which is in direct contrast which the elemental approach of Wundt.
• The number of publications he made on the subject of functionalism made it possible to open up more rooms for other psychologists interes- ted in mental processes, in particular human behavior.
Learning Points
The ideas of William James about functionalism have some practical relevance to Education and in particular to a practicing teacher:
• Behavior is very adaptive. This means that teachers in schools should endeavor to assist learners adapt easily to school situations or environ- ment. The society in which the children are fond should likewise teach them proper adjustment mechanisms.
• Conducive environment is needed always for any meaningful adapta- tion and/or adjustment.
• Learner must always be supplemented with a lot of practical activities.
So those in charge of curriculum construction or development must always take that into account.
• Teaching must always take into account the different ages of the lear- ners, including their interests.
• The use of tests and other devices for assessing the progress the learner are making is greatly encouraged in school situations.
• Learners are the center of learning activities and teachers are to take note and do it.
• It is possible to conduct scientific studies in schools for the purpose of improving teaching and learning both by the teacher and learners.
Behaviorism
Welcome to another topic, which this time is about ‘Behaviorism’.
This is a topic attributed to J.B. Watson (1878-1958), came out to popularize behaviorism, which indeed revolutionize psychology as an objective study of behavior; animal and human beings. He gave the definition as being on the proposition that all things which organisms do like acting, thinking and feeling should be regarded as behaviors. This means that behaviors can indeed be descri- bed scientifically without recourse to internal physiological events of hypothetical constructs, such as the mind.
The points that were raised by Watson were actually against those that were pos- tulated by Structuralism. The points in his views are that psychology needs to be objective in its approach to the study the mental processes and behaviors, unlike the mentalist approach of Titchener and his associates. He defined psychology as the science of behavior (hence behaviorism). The task of any psychologist is to establish the laws of behavior. The theories or conclusions that are developed to explain behavior should have observable correlates, but that there are no philosophical differences between observable processes and privately observable processes (such as thinking and feelings). Introspection was outright rejected by Watson and his colleagues as a method of study of internal mental processes. To avoid falling into the traps of introspection, Watson concentrated only on experimental methods in attempting to study human behaviors. The reliance on experimental method attracted a lot of followings. Among them are personalities like Skinner, who is known as the father of operant conditioning. Others like Hull, who developed the hypothetical-deductive method in reductive theory of learning, and of course the re-enforcement in learning situation. Guthrie also was another person who was fascinated by the ideas of Watson. He proposed a theory of behavior based on a single law. Any time a response occurs, it is linked with each of the stimulus elements present at the time, the response is made.
Watson produced a very powerful, pure and descriptive behaviorism and attracted many followers. Some of the ideas have implications for education today.
Learning points
Behaviorism today has a number of good points that can be applied in teaching- learning situations.
• There are good points in the psychology of learning and motivation.
Teachers are called upon to take note of the contributions of behavio- rism to the profession.
• Other areas of psychology can be meaningfully used for promoting positive learning, e.g. emotion, and child behavior.
• Programmed learning has become fashionable in classroom teaching.
• Conducive learning environment is paramount in teaching-learning situation.
• Behavior is learnt because the organism is in perpetual contact with it.
• Learners are the center of the teacher’s attention when teaching in class.
• Rewards are very important in teaching-learning task, and teachers are to take note of that.
Summary
Watson’s main points:
• Psychologists to concentrate on measurable and observable behaviors (behaviorism).
• Defined psychology as the science of behavior, and therefore the main task of a psychologist is to establish the laws of behavior.
• Environment has influence on behavior of an organism.
Psychoanalysis
Welcome to yet another very important topic in the School of Thought in Psy- chology. This time we shall concentrate our thoughts on one individual, whose name is Sigmund Freud (1856-1936).
Sigmund Freud is known as the father of Psychoanalysis. He was as most people say a prolific writer who during his most active life spanning over 45 years wrote, developed and revised his theories many times. However controversial his theory is his influence on the profession of counseling and psychotherapy has been quite enormous and controversial. Because of his commitment to his studies and/or research work, he was characterized by his contemporaries as a meticulous scientist, and a workaholic. He qualifies as medical doctor and was later to be influenced by two important mentors. The first mentor was called Charcot, who under his
tutelage, Sigmund Freud came to develop a lot of interest in hypnosis, hysteria and the sexual basis of mental disturbances. The second mentor was Josef Breuer, who had developed techniques in treating women who had problems of fainting and serious coughing ailments. From the experiences he gained from his two mentors, Sigmund Freud was later to develop his interest in and methods of treatment called Psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis means several things to many people. It can mean a system or school of psychology. It may also mean a theory of personality, a method of psychiatric therapy based on the theory that mental illness functions on both conscious and unconscious levels, treatment by psychoanalysis involving the interpretation of dreams and the patient’s free association of ideas. So in the context of this module, psychoanalysis is presented as a system of psychology and discussed in relation to the theory of personality as developed by Sigmund Freud himself.
Freud’s main ideas center on the premise that the greater part of our personality lies buries in the unconscious. To him our mental phenomenon is comparable to an iceberg floating on the surface of the ocean, whose greater part portion remains under the surface of the water. The meaning behind this statement is that we cannot proceed to study human behavior by merely observing his/her overt behavior because most of the repressed desires, thoughts and feelings re- main in the unconscious, yet continue to influence our behavior. He attributed three qualities to mental processes: conscious, pre•conscious and unconscious. Conscious here relates to our being aware of a phenomenon at a given moment. Pre-conscious is the aggregation of of experiences we are able to attend to. Un- conscious is the phenomenon we are unaware of and is not accessible except under special circumstances.
To translate his theoretical propositions, Sigmund Freud developed a unique structure of psyche consisting of the id, ego and super ego. He called this the ‘Psyche Structure’. The id comprises all that is inherited or present at birth. To him, the id is the source of all mental energy in an individual. The id is governed by the principle of hedonism.
Main characteristics of the Id
According to Sigmund Freud, the id consists of the following:
• It is unconscious in nature and has no direct contact with reality.
• It is dominated by pleasure principle and always strives to avoid pain.
• It is abnormal in the sense that it contains no social value or morality
• It is illogical.
• It contains repressed desires, thoughts and feelings.
• It is a reservoir of libido. The life and death instinct passes through it, promotes primitive habit formation and is the seat of all instincts.
The Ego
The ego develops from the id to counteract the pressures emanating from it. The ego
operates on the reality principle and the main characteristics are the following:
• It is logical in nature and largely conscious.
• Always strives for satisfaction.
• It deals with reality of the environmental conditions and therefore pre- serves the person.
• Because it obeys reality principle, it differentiates between subjective experiences and the nature of things within the external environment.
• It censors dreams.
• It acts as intermediary between forces of instinctive pressure, external reality and control from super ego.
Super Ego
This is the last psychic entity. According to Sigmund Freud, it is the internalized version of parental or other authority figures. Super ego is known also as the vehicle for the ego ideal.
According to Sigmund Freud, the following are the main characteristics of super ego:
• Represents the influence acquired from other persons, parents, authority within the society.
• It is a differentiated part of the ego.
• It is largely inaccessible to the ego.
• It is largely not found in the conscious, but in the ego.
• It is always in contact with the id.
• It is the outcome of the child’s co-existent desires i.e. to love and to be loved.
• It is a moral critic that maintains in the ego an unconscious guilt sense.
• It blocks the impulses that which violates the social norms.
Learning Points
Today psychoanalysis as propounded by Sigmund Freud has a number of practical points relevant in educational practice, which classroom teachers can make use of in their teaching assignments. The following are some of the points which can aid teaching activities
• The theory and practice of education revolutionized to the extent that the unconscious motivation plays an important part or role in the process of learning. • Foundation of freedom in education has been laid, because psychoanalysis advocates for the importance of total develop- ment of an individual’s personality. • Emotion is an important ingre- dient in the process of education and/or learning of an individual.
• Teachers play significant role in the life of students, by foe example influencing their behavior, forms positive attitudes towards life and colleagues and promotion of pro-life social skills.
• Curricular activities are given due importance in schools and as avenues for propping up feelings that are instantly released. • Teachers are able
to understand the origin, development and possible causes of malad- justment in children. • Early childhood education given due attention by educational planners, curriculum developers and implementers and teachers, especially of lower classes.
Children are given opportunities to express their emotion and motives freely during learning activities. Respect for children’s experiences and utilization during teaching-learning sessions, and teachers must always have this in mind.
• Teachers need to express love, sympathy and affection to children du- ring teaching. By doing this the teacher is actually promoting develop- ment of positive attitudes in children towards life in general.
• Teachers to avoid reliance on punishment and other negative re-enforce- ments during teaching-learning activities, because they create problems to emotional stability of children.
Gestalt School of Psychology
We are now going to look at the last school of thought about psychology. This time we focus on the school that has been called Gestalt school of psychology.
Gestalt school of psychology developed as a movement against the theory of behaviorism and conditioning. As a gestalt school in its present form, is a de- velopment from psychologists with the focus on how humans create meaning out of the perceptual stimuli which abound in the environment. The movement became known as the Warburg School of imageless thoughts. Max Wertheimer became well known in this school and he conducted a number of experiments about holistic nature of human experience and the primacy of figure-ground relationships.
The basic principle in Gestalt Psychology is holism or lacking separateness. Trans- lated in practical terms, the essence is that human beings cannot be separated from their environment, nor can they be divided into parts. So physical and psychological functioning is inherently related: thoughts, feelings and physical sensation are all part of the unified being.
Max Wertheimer was later joined by other psychologists, namely Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler in the University of Frankfurt.
Main features of Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt is a German word literally meaning ‘whole’ or ‘pattern’. So in a simple day-to•day language, the word can mean ‘form’, ‘shape’ or ‘configuration’. The principle ideas contained in this school of thoughts are the following
• Whole is important in as far as determining the behavior is concerned, because it is from the whole that the other parts can respond accordin- gly. We always perceive the whole and not its parts. This definitely goes against the elementalistic psychology that had earlier emphasized the importance of parts. • Phenomenological approach. Gestalt approach to the understanding of human behavior is antiposivitic, and therefore moralistic to human behavior. • Human behavior cannot be quanti- fied. Instead, Gestalt psychology emphasized qualitative assessment of human behavior.
• The measuring instruments or tools used in studying human behavior are unreliable, unpredictable and not valid. This view is in direct oppo- sition to ideas advocated by behaviorism. They introduced the concept of organization as opposed to the stimulus-Response (S-R) dyad.
Laws of Perception
1. Pragnanz. Our perception organization is always as good as the prevailing conditions allow. This has implications for promotion of motivation in an individual.
2. Proximity, closure and Similarity. Gestalt laws also follow the three prin- ciples. Proximity makes objects be perceived as a unity where they are observed in close proximity. The principle of similarity states objects that are observed in like color or forms will be perceived as assuming a group
formation. Closure means that the mind has a tendency to complete imper- fect wholes into perfect and closed forms. A dynamic variation of the laws of pragnanz is the principle of closure which operates in our perception, thoughts, action and memories.
• Insight. Gestalt psychologists developed the theory of learning by insight. Productive thinking focuses on the importance of perceiving meaningful wholes, grasping relations and finally acquisition of insight.
• Psychological isomorphism. This theory was developed from Quantum Theory (in Physics) and when translated to psychology means physical and mental. The brain functions tend to take the form of specific molar events corresponding to those structures that are found in our experien- ces.
Learning Points
Today Gestalt psychology as advocated by Wertheimer and his colleagues has been found to have practical applications in actual teaching-learning situations. The following are some of the main points, which can be meaningfully utilized by classroom teachers.
• The present environment where teachers and learners are found plays an important part in the development of personality. Teachers, school administrators must endeavors to create conducive environment for enjoyment of learning.
• Social learning in the classroom be taken note of and made use of in instructional activities. For consolidation of learnt materials among the learners.
• Gestalt psychologists have provided new approaches to problem solving and learning. Goals and purpose have important place in individual goals. Goals and purpose activate the learners.
• School administrators, teachers and the learners must work as an orga- nized whole to improve teaching and learning process in school.
• Learners’ views are important in the promotion of teaching-learning activities. Teachers are obliged to take note and respect the views from the learners.
Unit Two: The Learning Objectives of this unit are for you to:
Unit Two: Learning Objectives
Define the terms Education and Educational Psychology. State the connections between Education and Psychology. List the contributions of Educational Psychology to the practice of Education.
List the benefits of Educational Psychology to a classroom teacher.
Readings and Useful Links:
1. Educational psychology-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology
2. Introduction to Educational Psychology-Psychology Wiki-a-Wiki http://psychology.wiki.com/wiki/Introduction_to_educational_psyc
3. Definition of Psychology by Gene Zimmer http://www.sntp.net/psychology_definition.htm
4. Contributions of Psychology to Education by Edward L. Thorndike http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Thorndike/education.htm
5. Educational psychologist (2000), 35(4) pp257-270
Educational Psychology in Teacher Education by Anita Woolfolk http://
leaonline.com/do/abs/10.1207/S15326985EP3504_04Abstract
6. Psychology as a Science http://www.allfreeessays.net/student/Psycho- logy_A_Science.html
7. Psychology as a Science (Chapter one) by Alfred H. Funch and Cathe- rine S. Milar
http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/01/04713832/047138201.pdf
Unit Three: The Learning Objectives of this unit are for you to:
Unit Three: Learning Objectives
Identify the different methods of study in Educational Psychology.
List the advantages and disadvantages of each method of study
Reading # 2
Introduction to Educational Psychology-PsychologyWiki-a Wikia
http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Introduction_to_educational_
psych.(Retrieved: 16th Nov, 2007).
Wikipedia (Answers.com) History of Psychology http://www.answers.com/
topic/history_of_psychology (Retrieved: 16th Nov 2007)
Answers.com Educational Psychology http://www.answers.com/educational
+psychology?cat=technology
(Retrieved: 16th Nov 2007)
Dr. C. George Boeree. Quantitative Methods http:/webspace.ship.educ/cp- boer/genpsyqua/meth.html
(Retrieved: 18th Nov 2007)
Unit Four: The Learning Objectives of this unit are for you to:
Unit Four: Learning Objectives
• Equip teacher with skills and knowledge for effective teaching.
• Equip the teacher with skills of guidance and counseling for the learners who may need the services.
• Conduct out measurement and evaluation of teaching-learning activities in school.
• Equip the teacher with skills of test construction.
• Enable the teacher grade learners at every end of learning activity conducted.
• Enable the teacher cater for individual differences among the learners.
• Equip the teacher with skills in curriculum construction and/or revision.
• Conduct effective classroom discipline and management
• Equip the teacher with skills to conduct further research into the field of Education.
• Enable the teacher predict the outcomes of educational activities.
IX. Teaching and learning activities
Pre-assessment
Pre-assessment exercise in this module is to help you test your knowledge as far as General Psychology is concerned. You are requested to try answering these multiple questions before checking in the answers given at the end of this module.
Rationale
By making an effort to try answering these multiple question items, you are in- directly evaluating the progress you are making in grasping the subject matters of general Psychology and Educational Psychology. So go ahead and give this a trial and see what comes out of the exercise.
Pre-assessment
Title of Pre-assessment: Multiple Choice Questions Exercise
To provide an opportunity for you the learner on what you have so far done in this module, the following objective test items are presented as a revision exercise. It is intended to provide some background readings on some of the basic concepts and ideas needed for successful learning of this module.
You are particularly advised to go through all the items before checking at the possible answers at the end of the exercise. After that you can find out how you have progressed, and of course try also to look up more information from the sources given in the references.
1. When we talk about Psychology, we are actually referring to;
a) Understanding behavior
b) Environment of an organism c) Study of the mind
d) The activities of the teacher in the class
2. ...........actually forms part of Psychology
a) Perception, cognition, behavior and teaching b) Perception, behavior, cognition and emotion c) Soul, behavior, cognition and perception
d) Cognition, behavior, emotion and answering
3. Psychology helps in the understanding of
a) Processes that go in the mind of a person b) More about body movement
c) In becoming clever or intelligent in class work d) how discoveries are made
4. Which is the best definition of Educational Psychology?
a) The study of children in learning situation
b) The systematic study of the development of an individual within educa- tional setting.
c) The science of behavior
d) Critical outlook and curiosity to examine common sense and traditional belief about learning.
5. Educational Psychology helps a teacher to
a) Foster harmonious development of learners into responsible and active citizens
b) Go for further studies
c) To become more reasonable and understanding d) To become effective in interacting with peers
6. ………has defined behavior as an action which can be seen and observed in an objective way
a) Plato
b) Froebel
c) Pestalozzi d) Watson
7.Psychology comes from the Greek word which means the study of ………. a) Human body
b) Human life
c) Soul
d) Thinking
8.Identify the odd word from the list given
a) Educational Psychology helps a teacher understand problem of children in learning situation
b) Educational Psychology helps teachers counsel children they teach
c) Educational Psychology helps school inspector be effective in motoring progress in primary schools
d) Educational Psychology helps teacher understand group dynamics
9. Look at the following statements (a….b). Which ones are appropriate ob- jectives to Educational Psychology? (Circle the correct ones)
a) To provide teachers with skills related to teaching
b) To instill in teachers the urge for professional growth
c) To provide teacher with guidelines for solving problems in teaching- learning process
d) To assist teachers give effective punishments to children for wrong doing in schools
10. The main objective of ………… is to assist teachers develop necessary skills and competencies to understand, control, and predict behaviors of learners in educative process at different levels.
a) Human Psychology
b) Developmental Psychology c) General Psychology
d) Educational Psychology
11. …………established a laboratory of Psychology and started to conduct systematic experimental studies in Psychology in 1879 in Germany
a) W.Wundt b) I. Pavlov
c) J.S. Skinner d) Guthrie
12. The word Introspection as used in psychology means…………
a) The study of the consciousness b) Self observation
c) Feelings and motives
d) Nature of an individual’s experiences
13. When a teacher carries out a systematic study of a group of children over an extended period of time (e.g. two years), this is known as ……..
a) Longitudinal study b) Clinical case study
c) Cross-sectional study d) Differential survey
14. Which statement is not true?
a) Experimental method is the most systematic procedure in solving pro- blems
b) Experimental method is objective and precise information
c) The findings from experimental method are easily verified in other investigations under different conditions
d) Experimental method provides innovative ideas for further experimen- tations
15.……………greatly emphasized the importance of activated in schools a) John Dewey
b) William James
c) Albert Bandura
d) Hull and Tolman
16.The Need Achievement Theory of Motivation was postulated by …….. a) Abraham Maslow
b) David McClelland
c) Ivan Pavlov
d) Albert Bandura
17. What motivates a distance learner to study hard is due to ……. a) Intrinsic motivation
b) Self-drive
c) Self-esteem
d) Extrinsic motivation
18. Psychoanalytic theory of motivation emphasizes ……. a) Unconscious motive
b) Overt behavior patterns
c) Relationship patterns d) Socialization practices
19. Social Learning Theory emphasizes ……. a) S-R relationships
b) Modeling
c) Integration
d) Positive re-enforcement
20. Which of these is not a function of motivation?
a) Energizes and sustains behavior b) Directs and regulates behavior
c) Selects behavior and directs it toward a goal d) Terminates achievement motive
Answer Key
1. C
2. B
3. A
4. B
5. A
6. D
7. C
8. C
9. D
10. D
11. A
12. B
13. A
14. C
15. A
16. A
17. A
18. A
19. B
20. D
Pedagogical Comments For Learners
Thank you very much for the effort you have put in to go through this simple exercise. If the outcome of the effort you have put in has made you score ten and above, you are doing well. Any score above seventeen, you are doing very well and encouraged to maintain the diligence in your studies. On the other hand, any score below ten, you need to work extra hard in order to successfully complete the course.
X. learning activities
Important Tips
General Psychology and Educational Psychology are interesting subjects to study. Therefore you as a young and upcoming teacher, we want you to try and see the practical applications in real life. You are requested to do the following activities, and as you do so, try and think seriously in the context of the subject of study (i.e. General Psychology).
Activity One
Title: Introduction to General Psychology
Your role as a teacher is very important because you help children learn new skills, develop positive attitudes and useful knowledge so that they become self reliant, independent and creative and productive citizens of the country. While there may be few things that students learn just for the sake of learning, the bulk of what is taught is generally assumed to be of some useful purpose. By deliberately teaching these students, you are helping them clarify and refine their ideas and skills as they grow and mature.
It is through application of what teachers teach and what students learn that the benefits of schooling can be derived and enjoyed by all.
Task Number One
• Select 10 boys and 10 girls in Senior One and Senior Two (randomly and irrespective of their ages). i) Ask each student to write down what their teachers do that make them enjoy learning and therefore continue attending classes without missing any. ii) When they have completed the first part, again ask them to write down what their teachers do that make them uncomfortable or uncomfortable and uneasy in class.
• In a similar manner, select 10 boys and 10 girls from Senior Three and Senior Four (randomly and irrespective of their ages). I) Ask them to write down what their teachers do that make them enjoy learning and therefore continue attending classes without missing any. ii) When they have completed the first part, ask them to write down what teachers do that make them uncomfortable and uneasy in class.
• Now, carefully compile the results of your investigations for all the four groups according to: a) Senior One and Senior Two, and Senior Three and Senior Four; b) According to sexes for both levels.
Between 80-120 words write: i) A summary of your findings, ii) Between 250-550 words write and submit your report to The Chairman, The Board of Governors of your school stating very clearly:
• The objectives of your study.
• The major findings of the study.
• Conclusion.
• The recommendations for the way forward.
ActivityTwo
Title: General Psychology and Education
(This activity requires you to work preferably with peers who are also on distance learning programs. One is however free to work alone in case there are no colleagues on further training using distance mode).
It is very helpful and beneficial to have benchmarks along the way to mastery of the various objectives of science. The reason is that they give us an indication of where we are going. By actually looking back we can see what has already been accomplished. It allows us to assess where people are along the journey and help with the next process.
Psychology as a science also uses the scientific methods to collect, analyze and interpret data and thereafter derive meanings about individuals and groups. The outcomes of the data analysis makes it possible for the one conducting the in- vestigation to predict, control and shape behaviors of individuals. We try to find out new truth in Psychology, we deal with observable behavior and establish facts by objective proof of evidence.
In psychology research, we attempt to know more and more about variables that affect the behavior and present casual relationship as a system of hypotheses. It therefore becomes very important for a prospectus teacher to understand and appreciate the systematic development of psychology to study the behaviors of learners from different approaches, and apply the same to his/her behavior and understanding, and thereafter take advantage in effecting desirable changes in the learners without rigidly adhering to any system of psychology.
Task One
In the group you have formed, brainstorm together on the following:
The relationships between Psychology and Education. (Since this is a group ac- tivity, it is important to have a member as a moderator, and another person as a recorder to write down contributions from colleagues. It is also important that each member contributing endeavors to support his/her points with concrete examples). The relevance of Educational Psychology to:
• To effective teaching by teachers in respective schools.
• Construction of test items.
• Marking and grading of students’ work or test results.
• Improvement of discipline in schools.
• How students can be assisted to realize their career visions and aspirations.
Task Two
Between 300-600 words, write a report and submit it to the Head teacher to read to staff
during staff meeting, specifying very clearly the following:
• Feedbacks from the staff on the feasibility of the suggestions in your report.
• Collective practical measures that are taken or put in place to consoli- date the knowledge gained from your report.
Activity Three
Title: Methods of Educational Psychology
A casual observation of students in your classroom indicates that each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities and challenges that result from learning and development. These characteristics manifest themselves in a num- ber of areas e.g. intelligence, creativity, motivation, cognitive styles, reading and writing, the capacity to process information, communication and relationship with others. There are also cases of disabilities among school age going children, e.g. attention-deficit hyperactivity disorders, learning disability, dyslexia and speech disorder.
Motivation is an internal state that activates guides and sustains behavior. Educa- tional Psychology research on motivation is concerned with the will that students bring to a task, their level of interest and intrinsic motivation, and the personally held goals that guide their behavior, their belief about the cause of their success or failure. Motivation theories explain how learners’ goals affect the way they engage with academic work. Those who have mastery goals strive to increase their ability and knowledge, while those who have performance approach goals strive for high grades and seek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. Research has found that mastery goals are associated with many positive outcomes such as persistence in the face of failure, performance for challenging tasks, creativity and intrinsic motivation. Performance approach goals are associated with positive outcomes, and some negative outcomes, such as unwillingness to seek help and shallow information processing.
As a teacher, you are aware of the role motivation plays in reading development and achievement of students. Various educational practices are used to enhance reading motivation and encourage children to read.
Task One
Leisure reading is the reading students choose to do on their own, as opposed to readings that are assigned to them. At times this reading is also known as spare time reading, recreational reading, independent reading and self-selected reading. This means students have personal choice over what they want to read. This also means the reading goes beyond books:
a) Select a group of students, 15 boys and 15 girls who are below the age of eighteen, and do the following:
• Whether they read during their leisure time
• Why they read
• What they read
• The topics and the characters or people they like to read about
• Who encourages them to read
• Where they obtain what they read
• If they do not read, why not?
b) Select six teachers (3 males, 3 females) in your school and request them to respond in writing to what are the:
• Sources of motivation for students to read
• Factors that get students excited about reading in general
• Whether they have specific time for teaching reading in their timetable.
If no, why not?
• Attitudes of students toward leisure reading generally in the school.
After you have done all these activities, analyze the data you have collected and present the results stating clearly:
• Major findings for both students and the teachers
• Sex differences in terms of motivation to read, what they read, the to- pics or people they enjoy reading about, those who do not like reading at all
• What teachers have said about sources of reading, factors that get stu- dents excited about reading, and specific time in timetable.
Write a report of between 300-600 words, a report to the District Inspector of Schools, spelling out the factors that motivated you to conduct this study, the major findings, and suggestions or recommendations for improved reading culture in secondary schools in the district.
Activity Four
Title: Relevance of Educational Psychology
Research on classroom management and pedagogy is conducted to guide teaching practice and form a foundation for teacher education programmes. The goal of classroom management is to create an environment conducive to teaching and learning, and also to developing students’ self-management skills and make students share their learning experiences together in class. Above all classroom management strives to create positive teacher-student and peer relationships, management of student groups to sustain on-task behavior and use counseling and other psychological methods to aid students who present persistent psycho- social problems.
Sociogram is a systematic timed observation and/or interview, which is charting out of the relationships within groups. Its purpose is to describe group structu- res i.e. networking of findings, patterns and sub-group organizations. It should be a useful method or tool for helping you to gather data about aspects of your classroom when, later you explore ways to make learning environment in the class more learner centered than previously.
The value of sociogram to a teacher is in its practicality in the greater understanding of groups dynamics, so that the teacher may operate more effectively and wisely in management, e.g. classroom management and curriculum development.
In this activity you will learn and practice how to use inquiry method as a tool called ‘sociometry’. Sociometry should be useful for helping you to set up a more learner centered environment.
Steps to follow
1) Give each student a piece of paper and ask each write four names of students with whom they work best in the subject you teach them.
2) Ask each student to write name of one person in class with whom they do not choose to work with in the subject you teach.
3) Collect the pieces of paper from the students.
4) Find a quiet place, and with a large table, spread out all pieces of paper containing the names.
5) Analyze the data from all the students’ responses and construct a socio- gram of the class.
6) Try to analyze the results according to: those who are popular, those who are liked more than dislike, those disliked more than liked, those who are controversial( i.e. positive and also negative because of the number choices made balancing out between positive and negative), those rejected; and those neglected.
7) Write a Simple Sociogram reflecting all aspects of the responses.
After a period of about seven days, use the results of the Activity One to form what you would call “New Learning Groups”. Inform the class of your intention to teach them using the new groups that have been formed, but based on the results of your analysis as depicted in the sociogram you have constructed.
1) At appointed times, teach them in their new groups.
2) After every lesson taught, request each student to evaluate how they felt the learning in the new learning groups. Give each learner a sheet of paper containing drawing of faces depicting moods, representing their feelings by putting a tick.
(Use the drawings below to do this).
Very happy
Unhappy
Happy Very Unhappy
3) Collect the paper, and compile the outcomes of your investigations
Final part of the assignment:
Write a report (between 200-300 words) to the Director of Studies how teaching can be improved through the use of Sociometry:
1. Describing what you did.
2. Your perceived feelings about what you did and how it affected your atti- tude, beliefs and theories about learners and learning theories.
3. What things you learned from inquiry activities and your prospects as a teacher.
4. How these things relate to learner centered education to national goals.
XI. Key Concepts (Glossary)
Achievement motivation. This is the drive to accomplish something usually under some difficult situation. The urge is to try to meet unsa- tisfied need.
Aspiration. This is the level of performance to which one aspires for the future In class, the teacher should organize class activities in such a way that the students keep striving and give a promise of goal attainment.
Attitude. A tendency to possess certain feelings towards a specified class of stimuli.
Behavior. This is an action that can be observed and described in an objec- tive way.
Behaviorism. Learning theory that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors and events and the predictable role of the environment in causing behavior.
Behaviorist approach this is approach to the study of cognitive develo- pment, based on learning theory, which is concerned with the basic mechanics of learning
Case study scientific study covering a single case or life, based on notes taken by an observer. This can be based on also on groups, events insti- tutions or cultures.
Competence. Ability to perform a task at a level of performance acceptable to other people observing.
Education. This is the development of skills, desirable habits and attitudes in accordance with acceptable values and norms of a society. In the process of education, we try to shape the behavior of young children in accordance with aims and goals of national life.
Educational Psychology. The application of psychological findings in the field of education for the purpose of systematically developing and indi- vidual within educational settings.
Experiment. (in education). A research situation in which one or more independent variables are systematically varied according to a preconcei- ved plan to determine the effects of this variation.
Grounded theory. Theory based on a study of the data rather than on some prior set of axioms and theorems.
Hypothesis. A conjecture or proposition about the solution to a problem, the relationship of two or more variables, ort the nature of some pheno- menon.
Independent variable. A variable that affects (or assumed to affect) the dependent variable under study and is included in the research design so that its effects can be determined.
Intellectual functioning The ability to solve problems related to academics, usually estimated by an I.Q. test.
Interaction. The effects of one independent variable on another, the lack of the effects of one independent variable remaining constant over the levels of another.
Maturation. Psychological and biological process operating and causing systematic variations within individuals with the passing of time.
Measurement. The assignment of numerals to objects, events according to specific rules.
Motivation This is stimulation of action towards particular objectives where previously there was very little or no movement towards those goals. Longitudinal studies. Studies that involve measuring the same or different
individuals two or more during a period of time (usually of considera-
ble length, such as several months or years)—for example, measuring the mathematics performance of the same students at yearly intervals as they progress from one grade to another.
Participant observer.The role assumed by the researcher in the ethno- graphic research such that the researcher becomes a participant in the situation being observed.
Personality. In general, it is the sum total of an individual’s mental and emotional characteristics. In the context of psychological testing, perso- nality inventories usually are designed to measure characteristics such as emotional and social adjustment.
Purposeful sample. A sample selected in a nonrandom manner, based on member characteristics relevant to the research problem.
Prediction. The estimation of scores on one variable from information about one or more other variables
Problem-solving. Ability to find answers to tasks or questions.
Psychology. The systemic study of the mind, along with concepts of mind, such as perception, cognition, emotion, and behavior.
Random sample. A sample selected in a way that the selection of one mem- ber in no way affects the probability of selection of any other member.
Sample. A sub-set of the population under study.
Survey research. Research that deals with the incidence, distribution, relationships of educational, psychological, and sociological variables in non-experimental settings.
Trait. A tendency to respond in a certain way to situations.
XII. list of Compulsory Reading
The reading lists that have been presented in this section are for you to read through because they are important. They contain points that can help you understand and give you the ideas as far as the module is all about. So make all the necessary efforts to read them.
Reading # 1
Educational Psychology- Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology (Retrieved: 2nd Nov 2007)
Abstract: The article discusses issues related to the definitions of Psychology and Educational Psychology as applied to human learning that takes place in educa- tional settings. Issues related to effectiveness of educational interventions, effective teaching, school organization and general educational attainment among the general population, e.g. gifted children or children with disabilities are elaborately discussed. Contributions of Educational psychology to educational practice in general are also presented in the article.
Other areas of benefits to the teacher are also included. These are topics related to social, moral and cognitive development, individual differences and disabilities, learning cognition, maturation, research methodology, assessment are some of the additional topics that have been included in the article. Educational Psychology a applied to instructional designs and technology and teaching in general is an area that motivates the teaching to be effective in teaching-learning activities.
Reading # 2
Introduction to Educational Psychology-PsychologyWiki-a Wikia http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Introduction_to_educational_psych. Retrieved: 16th Nov, 2007).
Abstract : The article discusses a number of issues related to Educational Psycho- logy in general. It begins by discussing the meaning of Educational psychology, which is that it is the study of how humans learn in educational setting, the effectiveness of educational treatment, psychology of teaching,. These aspects make Educational Psychology become concerned with the process of educational attainment among the general population.
The article also discusses the relationship between Educational Psychology and other disciplines, making it have a wide range of specialties with educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum deve- lopment, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Other topics like motivation, individual differences, research methods, classroom management and contributions of Educational Psychology are discussed.
Reading # 3
Psychology-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/psychology (Retrieved 16th Nov 2007)
Abstract : This particular article discusses a number of interesting aspects of General psychology. It begins by pointing out that Psychology is derived from two Greek words,’ psyche’ which means ‘talking about the soul’ while
‘logos ‘which means the study. A more precise definition of Psychology is given as the scientific study of mental processes and behavior, perception, cognition, emotion, personality behavior and interpersonal relationships.
The article goes on to discuss the definition of psychology in relation to the history, the branches and the field and sub-field of Psychology. The methods of study commonly used in the field of psychology including research are clearly presented in this article. The advantages and the disadvantages of the different methods of study are brought out to the benefit of the reader.
Rationale: The article is one of the several presentations in the collections that try to introduce readers to the origin, meaning, definition and gradual development of psychology as an area of study, scientific investigation and leading personalities who have contributed to the field study. The article also have a number of areas that are very relevant to Education Practice, to other fields of study, e.g. human development, cognition, social and moral development and individual differences and special education.
Reading # 4
Educational Psychology: What is it? http://www.answers.com/what+is+educational+psychology%3F?cat=tec hnology
Abstract: The presentation starts by giving to the teacher and the general rea- dership the definition of educational psychology, its development as an area of study and how as a subject, has contributed immensely to the field of education all over the world today. Of particular interest is the great emphasis the article places on the teacher in classroom situation. Its usefulness to the class teacher
in terms of what he/she thinks and does as teaching goes on in class, as learners make progress in what they are being taught, the contributions of this subject to curriculum development and construction in a particular environment where education and training are intended to take place.
Rationale: This is one of the articles that has tried to defined Educational Psycho- logy in a simple but straightway making it easy to understand as it relates to the field of teacher and what practicing expects to benefit or gain from the subject, or how best teaching and learning can be enhanced easily by the teacher.
XIII. List of Relevant Resources
Dr. C.George Boeree. General Psychology
http://webspace.ship.edu./cgboer/genpsy.html
(Retrieved: 15th Nov 2007)
Summary: A brief description of what Psychology is given as the study of the mind, along with aspects of the mind such as perception, cogni- tion, emotion and behavior. Other areas of relevance of Psychology like nature verses nurture, neuropsychology, personality, learning, memory and psychological disorders, language and therapy are discussed into details.
Rationale: The website provides a useful source of information about Psychology as an area of study that has practical value and application to a number of disciplines beyond education.
Wikipedia (Answers.com) History of Psychology
http://www.answers.com/topic/history_of_psychology
(Retrieved: 16th Nov 2007)
Summary: Gives a review of the development of Psychology, the early psychological thoughts, the beginning of western Psychology and the emergence of experimental psychology and other sub-psychological areas like behaviorism, and cognition.
Rationale: Gives a good background to the historical development and expansion of psychology into an area of scientific interest and investiga- tion and the different schools and methods of study that were to emerge over the years.
Answers.com Educational Psychology
http://www.answers.com/educational+psychology?cat=technology
(Retrieved: 16th Nov 2007)
Summary: Gives the definition of Psychology as the study of what people think and do as they teach and learn a particular curriculum in
a particular environment where education and training are intended to take place.
Rationale: The website gives a rich explanations on what Educational psychology is all about in relations to issues like learning, curriculum, instructional design and teaching, and the contributions of the subject to motivation, individual differences, intelligence, and other measures in education.
Answers.com
http://www.answers.com/topic/psychology
(Retrieved: 17th Nov 2007)
Summary: Gives a number of definitions of Psychology and brings out points or contributions of the subject to other related disciplines. Rationale: A valuable source of information to the benefits to the rea- der who is interested in learning more about the subject.
Sociogram in Practice
http://www.edsnet.na/Images/betmodelspdf/ETP4ACD.pdf
(Retrieved: 15th Nov 2007)
Summary: The article guides the classroom teacher in how to make use of the sociogram in classroom situation to improve teaching and classroom management, and how the knowledge of and application of Educational Psychology can be applied to the benefits of the teacher and the learners.
Rationale: Useful in the classroom situation because the method of study bridges the gap between the teacher and the learners as socio- metry makes it possible for the teacher to delve deeper in understanding his/her learners and thereafter be able to cater for individual differences and needs.
WikiBooks-Contemporary Educational Psychology: The Changing Teaching
Profession and You.
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Contemporary/_Educational_Psychology
(Retrieved: 20th Nov 2007)
Summary: Presents to the reader the challenges of teaching, with a number of possible solutions over these challenges.
Rationale: Very good sources of information for an upcoming teacher since the challenges they face are presented in the article.
Dr. C. George Boeree. Quantitative Methods
http:/webspace.ship.educ/cpboer/genpsyqua/meth.html
(Retrieved: 18th Nov 2007)
Summary : The article talks about quantitative methods as applied to case studies related to psychology, experimental methods, introspection, naturalistic observation, participant observation and interviewing. Rationale: The web site is important for teachers to know who want to
conduct research studies involving quantitative methods.
Dr. C. George Boeree. Correlation
http:webspace.ship.educ/cpboer/correlation/html
(Retrieved: 18th Nov 2007)
Summary : The article presents the reader with methods or procedures of dealing with measurements of variables.
Rationale :The article is good for teachers who are interested in measu- ring the relationships between or among variables that may promote or retard teaching-learning activities.
Dr.C.George Boeree. Experiment
http:/webspace.ship.educ./cpboer/experiments.html
(Retrieved: 18th Nov 2007)
Summary : The article is good for teachers because it vividly presents how to conduct experiments in psychological studies.
Rationale :The article is good for teachers who are interested in carrying out simple experiments in classrooms to improve teaching-learning experiments
About.com: Psychology
http://psychology.about.com/od/psychology101/f/psychfaq.html
(Retrieved: 21st Nov 2007)
Summary : The article endeavors to define psychology as a subject of study in relation to other disciplines
Rationale :The article is good for further understanding of what psy- chology as an area of study in relation to other teaching learning disci- plines.
Educational Psychologist: A view from within the discipline
Educational Psychologist (1993), Vol. 28(2) pp 97-115 (Retrieved: 22nd Nov 2007)
Read only the abstract given, because it gives what is contained in the
main article.
Classics in the history of psychology
Edward L. Thorndike. Contributions of psychology to education
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Thorndike/education.html
(Retrieved: 18th Nov 2007)
Summary : It provides the views of one psychologist (Thorndike) about the contributions of psychology to education.
Rationale: This is a good article for readers who are interested in what the educational psychologist in the name of Edward Thorndike says about the subject.
A Transactional Model of the Teaching and Learning Process.
http://Chiron.va/edu/whuit/materials/tch/rnmd.html
(Retrieved: 24th Nov 2007)
Summary: Article gives diagrammatical representations of teaching- learning process with full view of the contributions of Educational Psychology.
Rationale: The graphic representations in the article makes it easy for the teacher to visualize what he/she does, how and when of the tea- ching-learning process.
Educational Psychologist, 35(4), pp 257-270.
Dr. Woolfolk Hoy: Educational Psychology in Teacher Education.
http://www.edu.msu.edu/DwongLibrary/CEPG900/Library/Woolfolk_ EdpsyTcher. pdf.
Summary: Gives some very good points regarding the role of Educatio- nal psychology in Teacher education programs and training.
Rationale: the websites provides insights into how teacher education programs and training can be enhanced with the proper utilization of the principles and theories that are used in the subject.
Researching the Teaching of Educational Psychology.
Nancy Flanagan Knapp and Kelvin Seiprt. Practicing What We Teach: Re- searching the Trends of Educational Psychology.
http://www.coe.uga.edu/tep/pdf_2005/TEP_editorial.pdf (Retrieved:
25th Nov 2007)
Summary: Summarizes some research findings that have been done so far in Educational psychology in teaching activities.
Rationale: The websites is a good source of information for teachers who are interested in understanding more of how research in Educatio- nal Psychology can or has contributed to the enhancement of teaching as well as learning in school setting situations.
Educational Psychology
http://www.cpsimoes.net/artigos/art-edu_psi_eng.html
(Retrieved: 25th Nov 2007)
Summary: Gives a lot of informational about Educational Psychology in relation to its development as an area of study and how much it
has so far contributed to the field of Education, effective teaching and measurement practices in testing situations.
Rationale: The article provides insights into what Educational Psycho- logy is all about, its definition, and possible areas where it has a subject has contributed greatly.
Anita Woolfolk Hoy. Psychology in Teacher Education: Appreciated, Appro- priated, Abandoned.
http://www.abacon.com/woolfolk7/apa.html (retrieved: 26th Nov2007) Summary: The contributions of Educational Psychology in Teacher Education critically examined and results meaningfully used to impro- ved teacher education training activities. Possible areas of disappoint-
ments are also examined in the article.
Rationale: Good reading because of the summaries of research findings that have been
produced with reference to teacher education activities.
Teaching Concepts: Goal Setting
http://www.college.hmco.com/education/pbl/tc/goal.html
(Retrieved: 10thy Nov 2007)
Summary: Major tasks in teaching are clearly identified, reasons for sta- ting student objectives are stipulated, and objectives of teaching assign- ments clearly spelt out, the role of the teacher in determining contents presented and what general objectives serve in teaching-learning pro- cess.
Wikibooks.
Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 9: Instructional Planning.
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Contemporary_Educational_Psychology/ Chapter_9_
Instructional Planning (retrieved: 18th Nov2007)
Summary: Selection of goals and general goals of learning and the procedures involved is presented in the article, formulating learning objectives, taxonomies of educational objectives, students as source of instructional goals and enhancing students’ learning through a variety of resources and planning, and learning are the points discussed in the article.
Rationale: The source supplements what teacher need to know about
Educational Psychology in education and practices in general.
Psychology
http://www.crystalinks.com/psychology.html (retrieved: 17thNov2007) Summary: defines what psychology is, presents the history, branches, principles; and Schools of Psychology.
Rationale: Helpful site for readers who want to widen their understan- ding of psychology as an area of study or specialization, while reading on their own.
XIV. Useful links
Lists of Relevant useful links
Wikipedia-Structuralism, the free encyclopedia
Schools of Thought in Psychology http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structu- ralism (Retrieved: 30th Nov 2007).
Abstract: Main ideas as far as structuralism is concerned are given to the reader. It is good for more information for students who want to know more on the subject.
Understanding Motivation and Supporting Teacher Renewal: Quality and
Learning Series.
http://www.nwrel.org/qualityteaching/products/UnderstandingMotiva- tion.pdf (Retrieved: 30th Nov.2007)
Abstract: Discusses how teacher can always benefit from properly un- derstanding, utilizing motivation in teaching-learning activities both for herself/himself and the learners.
Principles of Learning-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Principles of Learning
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_learning (Retrieved: 30th- Nov 2007).
Abstract: Uses psychology to define and identify several principles of learning and laws which are applicable to learning process, identifies what makes people learn most. Thorndike’s laws of readiness, exercise and effect are ably discussed.
Center for Development of Teaching and Learning, (March, 2004), 7(3) Motivation for Mandatory Courses: Student/Teacher Motivation
http://www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/brief/pdf/v7n3.pdf
(Retrieved: 30th Nov.2007)
Abstract: Motivation is an important variable in teaching-learning process or situations. Negative motivation is discussed in positive light to produce changes in the learners, by creating positive environment
in practical steps to overcome negative motivation in teaching-learning situation.
Project-Based Learning Space
Teaching Concepts: Motivation
http://college.hmco.com/education/pbl/tc/motivate.html (Retrieved:
1stDec 2007)
Abstract: Gives meaning of motivation, factors for/against it and sug- gestions for motivating learners to learn in class. Resources for further investigation into the theories of motivational techniques for the tea- ching are discussed. The article takes into consideration the cognitive view; Need Achievement and humanistic view of motivation and the impact of it on learning, and how to motivate students to learn.
Developmental psychology-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology (retrieved:
2nd Dec2007)
Abstract: the website provides meaning and definition of developmen- tal psychology as that concerned with human development, focusing on progressive psychological changes that occur in human beings as they age. This spans lifelong study from infancy to adulthood. Areas like skill development and acquisition, problem-solving abilities, conceptual un- derstanding, acquisition of language, moral understanding and identity foundation are discussed.
Developmental psychology supplements/informs several other discipli- nes including educational psychology, child studies, social and cognitive development. Research methods are also included in the article.
Developmental Psychology
http://www.divpsy.org:lessons for teaching and learning developmental psychology
(Retrieved: 3rd Dec2007)
Abstract: Website give main points on developmental psychology, methods of study and the psychological changes that occur in life from infancy to adulthood and at time of death. The page is useful for general knowledge in developmental processes.
Functionalism-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/Functionalism_ (psychology) (Retrieved: 3rd Nov2007).
Abstract: Gives definition and describes what the main ideas that have been advanced by William James.
Behaviorism-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorism (retrieved: 3rd Nov 2007) Abstract: Site gives definition as being based on the preposition that all things which organisms do like acting, thinking, and feeling should be taken as behaviors, because they can be described scientifically.
Functionalism in Education
http://www.webrenovators.com/psych/Functionalism.htm (retrieved:
2nd Nov2007)
Abstract: Sites presents valuable points on how best functionalism can contribute to the practice of Education also how best children can be motivated to learn best.
Psychoanalysis-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychanalysis (retrieved: 2nd Nov2007) Abstract: Main ideas in the page are about the functions of the mind and treatment regimes. Unconscious is greatly put as the basis for symp- toms and character problems. Issues of defenses are discussed.
Relationship between Education and Psychology
Education.Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education (Retrieved: 19th Nov 2007). Abstract: Gives information on what education is all about and what ways Educational Psychology contributes to improved status of edu- cation and educational practice in general. Contributions to different
levels of schooling are explained in the site.
Classroom Management-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/classroom_management (Retrieved: 20th
Nov 2007).
Abstract: The site makes useful description of the process the teacher can take in effective good classroom management, using hints drawn from Educational Psychology so that disruptive behaviors on the part of the students are minimized.
Contemporary educational psychology/Chapter 7: Classroom Management and Learning.
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Contemporary_Educational_Psychology/ Chapter _7_classroom_and_the_Learning_Environment
(Retrieved 21st Nov 2007).
Abstract: The website presents cases of disruptive behaviors and how
the teacher goes about handling them in classroom. Goes on explaining why classroom management is very important to a teacher. Concept of classroom management is elaborately tackled. Good classroom environ- ment means creation of a positive learning environment, calls attention of totality of activity, the goals and expectations as well.
Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter7-Wikipedia
Preventing Management Problems by focusing on Students Learning
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Contemporary_Educational_Psychology/ Chapter_7:_ Classroom_Management_and_the_Learning_Environ- ment/Preventing_Managemen t_Programs
(Retrieved: 18th Nov 2007).
Abstract: talks about possible practical steps to effectively manage classroom, avoiding problems, arranging classroom space, displays of wall space, routine and classroom rules. Many points derived from the knowledge gained from Educational Psychology.
Observational Learning-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Observational Learning
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_Learning
(18th Nov 2007).
Abstract: Defines this type of learning as vicarious learning, social learning, modeling. The points raised in the article are good for teachers who are keen in what their learners are doing in class or learning situa- tions.
GROUPING IN THE ESL CLASSROOM by Nor Azmil Mustafa
http://www,melta.org.my/ET/2002/wp03.htm
(Retrieved: 12th Nov 2007).
Abstract: introduces readers to the usefulness of grouping learners for improved effective teaching and learning, and assessment for teaching and class, especially the language class. A lot of the points are derived from Educational Psychology.
SKEP CLASSROOMS WHERE STUDENT RESPOSIBILIT Y AND CONTRACTING ARE PROMOTED
http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/SKEP_classroom_where_student_res- posibility_an d_contracting_are_promoted.
(Retrieved: 3rd Nov 2007).
Abstract: Summarizes how teachers can promote student responsibi- lity and use it to the advantage of students in class, and where sense of self-worth, respect and love inculcated among the students, discipline problems reduced, thus making the school become a joyous place to stay. Gives hints about establishing quality schools.
XV. Teaching and learning activities
Title: Introduction to General Psychology
Specific Objectives:
• Define the words Science and Psychology
• Identify the characteristics of the word science
• State the major concerns of Psychology as a subject of study
• Justify why psychology is a science
Activity One:
1. Define the word Science
2. Identify the characteristics of the word ‘science’
3. Discuss the major concerns of Psychology as a subject
4. Based on the knowledge of what science is and its characteristics, justify why Psychology is taken as a science
Summary of Learning Activities
A clear grasp of what the subject of Psychology is all about.
Title: General Psychology and Education
Specific Objectives
• State the distinction between Education and Psychology • Identify the contributions of Educational psychology to: a) education in general, b) the teacher, c) the Practices of Education
Activity two
1. Make a distinction between a) Education and Psychology, b) Education and
Educational Psychology
2. Discuss the major contributions of Educational Psychology to a) the tea- cher, b) Education, c) the practice of Education
Summary of Learning Activities: Major distinctions between Education and Psy- chology made, and the contributions of Educational Psychology to educational processes and/or activities achieved by students.
Title: Methods of Educational Psychology
Specific Objectives
• Define naturalistic observation
• State the advantages and disadvantages of methods of study
• Define experimental method as a method of study
Activity three
1. Naturalistic Observation is one of the methods of study in Psychology/Edu- cational Psychology, a) explain any five (5) advantages and three (3) disad- vantages of using this method.
2. Discuss how you can reduce the effects of subjectivity in Participant Obser- vation when conducting a study of children in a kindergarten/nursery.
3. What are some of the problems that are possible in an experimental method of study?
Title: Relevance of Educational Psychology
Specific Objectives
• Equip the teacher with the counseling skills
• Equip the teaching with teaching effectiveness skills
Activity Four
Look at the following problems and see how you can use the knowledge of Edu- cational Psychology to solve them:
1. A student in class who is a bully, aggressive and runs away from Mathe- matics lesson.
2. A girl, who is disruptive, plays a lot of mischief and is most of time not attentive. She is generally above average n class.
3. A boy who does not complete science assignment in time
4. A brother and a sister who always come late to school but is very active in class activities.
XVI. Multimedia links
The following sites are considered useful for the success of your study of General Psychology and especially Educational psychology. Try during your free time to open up the internet and see for yourself what you can get in terms of the on- line resources.
Resource # 1
Title: Success Study Strategies for general Psychology: Help in Or- ganizing Your Study time and completing your assignments. http://ins.santafe.cc.fl.us/~muehr/genpsych/successST.html
(Retrieved: 19th Nov 2007)
Abstract: The site is good because it gives the students hints on the expectations from reading General psychology. It is divided into three sections detailing what to do in making use of the knowledge and skills acquired from the study of Psychology:
• Part One: Computer classroom “Psyk.Trek.CD”.
• Part Two: Mastering Psychology Study Guide.
• Part Three: Application in Psychology in Personal Encounters.
Resource # 2
Title: Virtual Student Services
Minimal Hardware and Software Requirements: • PC users
• Form Mac Users
• Windows
• Macintosh
• Java Script must be enabled
• Cookies must be enabled http://www.rodp.org/students/hardware_software.htm (Retrieved: 14th Nov 2007).
Abstract: The site gives to the students practice on how to make use of the components in the computer to promote technology in the classroom for teaching.
Resource # 3
Title: Resources for Teaching AS and A2 Psychology CD-ROM http://www.curriculumonline.gov/default.htm?cookie%5test=1 (Retrie- ved: 7th Nov 2007).
1. Multimedia in action. See Multimedia in action video case study
2. Read user stories. How e-Learning are making a difference in schools.
3. What is….? Advise on using technology to support resources.
4. Enjoy the benefits: why teach with ICT-The evidence
5. How to make the best of Multimedia resources in the classroom.
Resource # 4
Title: Educational Psychology
http://ei/eenkennedy.net?PUBS/lapschool.pdf (Retrieved: 13th Nov
2007).
Abstract: The site summarizes the approaches to teaching of Social Stu- dies highlighting the importance of planning, co-operative learning and making presentations. The details of activities are described here in the site and are based on relevant information derived from the application of knowledge and skills acquired from educational Psychology/General Psychology, in particular the site gives hints on the use of technology in teaching and learning more so in presentations.
Resource # 5
Title: A Critical Discourse in Multimedia Design: A Pedagogical Perspective to Creating Engaging Online Courseware by Muthu Kumar
http://www.usq.edu.ua/electpub/e-jist/docs/vol 7_no2/Fullpapers/Criti- calDisc_MM.htm
(Retrieved: 13th Nov 2007).
Abstract: Gives Rationale to e-Learning on instructional design ap- proach to multimedia application and providing engaging multimedia educational resources. In the article, the principles of cognitive psy- chology are evidently present for guiding in the making of the designs. It further defines multimedia as the use of test, graphics, animations, pictures and sounds to present information. Multimedia involves the simultaneous use of multimedia formats.
Resource # 6
Title: Glenn Research Center -Free Software
Learning Technologies Projects (LTP-Teachers Corner)
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/teacher.htm
Abstract: The site introduces the teacher to th learning of how techno- logies can be brought into the classroom. For example the following are given in the site:
• Teacher Created Web Page
• Educators Workshop
• Standard
• Educational technology Creation
• Certificate of Completion
Glenn Research Centre- Free Online Software. The icons for major programs for students to learn more about the following are given:
• Airfoils of Atmospheric Conditions where students learn about aero dynamics
• Engine Sim – Simulation for Testing jet engines
• Undergraduate computer programs through Java programs for engineering students learn about the basics of aerodynamics and propulsion
Resource # 7
Title: Index Pod cats http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airpla- ne/podcat.html
Abstract: a series of short videos produced by Digital Learning Network on the History of the invention of airplane by the two brothers who are also shown in the video clip. The site can be viewed video –online or downloaded to the computer.
Welcome to the Digital Learning Network
The following sites are given so that it makes it possible for learners at
all levels can have the opportunity to interact directly with NASA scien-
tists to gain more appreciation for science and education:
• American Space Port: John Kennedy Space Center
• Planate Hopping: Exploring the solar systems with Mathematics
• Toys in Space Investigations
• Living and Working in Space: NASA’s return to the moon
• Video Conferencing Fundamentals (EDUCATORS)
• Simple Machines
XVII. Synthesis of the module
The module on Introduction to General Psychology comprises of four important areas of study. Each unit has been given specific objectives which you are expected to achieve by the end the course. A number of activities have been included for your benefit, and therefore you are expected to complete them. They are part and parcel of your training. These activities have been included for testing whether you are making steady progress or being successful in studying diligently. In the end the expectations are that you will have acquired new knowledge and skills of being an effective and an organized teacher, who is able to put the knowledge of Educational Psychology to good use for the children under your tutelage.
Reading lists have also been included in the module for your perusal. These rea- dings can only be accessed through the internet. You are advised to be familiar with computer operations. Remember the tests or activities have been put in the module for your benefit. Kindly follow the instructions given and also the time given to complete each unit.
XVIII. Summative evaluation exercises
Learning Activities
The activities that are given in this section are to help you summarize the main points and ideas as far as the module is concerned. Make an effort to read through the relevant references that have been included in the given lists below and then try to do the exercises. These exercises are to help you wrap up the module and assess your position as far as this Introduction to General Psychology module is concerned.
8. Educational psychology-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology
9. Introduction to Educational Psychology-Psychology Wiki-a-Wiki http://psychology.wiki.com/wiki/Introduction_to_educational_psyc
10. Definition of Psychology by Gene Zimmer http://www.sntp.net/psychology_definition.htm
11. Contributions of Psychology to Education by Edward L. Thorndike http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Thorndike/education.htm
12. Educational psychologist (2000), 35(4) pp257-270
Educational Psychology in Teacher Education by Anita Woolfolk http://leaonline.com/do/abs/10.1207/S15326985EP3504_04Abstract
13. Psychology as a Science http://www.allfreeessays.net/student/Psychology_A_Science.html
14. Psychology as a Science (Chapter one) by Alfred H. Funch and Cathe- rine S. Milar http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/01/04713832/047
138201.pdf
15. What are the Major Tasks of Teaching?
http://www.college.hmco.com/education/pbs/goal.html
Activity One
Title: Introduction to General Psychology
Specific Objectives:
• Define the words Science, Psychology , Education and Educational Psy- chology • Identify the Characteristics of Science • State the Concerns of Psychology • Justify why Psychology is a science
Task one
a) Explain why you think Psychology is regarded as a science?
b) With relevant examples, discuss the concerns of Psychology as a subject of study.
Activity two
Title: General Psychology and Education
Specific Objectives
• State the distinction between Education and Educational Psychology
• State the contributions of Educational Psychology to:
a) Education b) The teacher
c) Practice of Education
Task two
a) Define Education and Psychology
b) Discuss the Major Contributions of Educational Psychology to:
1. The Theory of Education
2. Practice of Education
3. The Classroom Teacher
Activity three
Title: Methods of Educational Psychology
Specific Objectives
• S tate the Different methods of Study used in Educational Psychology
• State the Advantages and disadvantages of each method of study.
• Define experimental method
Task Three:
a) Write brief notes on the following methods of study in Educational
Psychology
1. Observational Methods
2. Naturalistic observation
3. Case Study method
4. Experimental Method
b) Pick any two methods of study you have written above and point out
the limitations of them in conducting studies in educational psychology.
Reading Lists
• Quantitative methods by Dr.C.G. Boeree http//webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/genpsyqua/meth.html
Activity four
Title: Relevance of Educational Psychology Specific Objectives
• Equip the teacher with skills for effective teaching
• Counsel the students for improved performance and achievements
Task four
a) Using relevant examples, discuss any six goals of Educational Psycho- logy
b) Discuss any three objectives of Educational Psychology
c) Write briefly on how Educational Psychology can help in promoting effective learning among children who are afraid of mathematics.
Possible answer keys to learning activities
Question one
Psychology regarded as Science:
• Uses scientific methods to bring out useful and reliable data
• Approaches that are used are scientific just like other physical sciences
• Principles applied are plausible within scientific ream
• Apparatuses that are used are acceptable within scientific application
• Materials used fall within scientific ream
• Data collected using the different tools analyzed is reliable, valid to the solution to problem affecting humankind.
Concerns of Psychology:
• Building of individual strategies that can help for happy and productive life
• Skills cultivation for effectiveness in task performance • Habit building and formation
• Attitude formation
• Value building
• Ideas generation (beliefs, ways of analytical disposition, imagination etc.)
• Facilitation of teaching-learning process of the learners as individuals
• Evaluation of learning/performance
Question two
Educational Psychology is the study of human behavior in an educational setting/organization, with the focus on ways of effecting successful interaction with learning materials.
Educational Psychology also focuses on how best the attitudes, behaviors, mo- rals, interests, and emotional dispensations of teachers can be molded to suit the classroom environment, so that the contents of what are being studied or taught can be absorbed the learners.
Education on the other hand is the facilitation of an individual in acquiring the talents, capabilities/potentials for independent living in society
This means that Education targets things like knowledge, skills, habits, attitu- des, values, and ideas, so that the person who has received it can live a produc- tive life.
Contributions of Educational Psychology to: Education:
• Understanding of growth and development characteristics from infancy to adulthood, e.g. individual differences, interests, intelligence, etc.
• Understanding of the nature of classroom environment
• Providing knowledge for effective teaching methods and choice of instructional materials
• Understanding of the problems learners face in learning situations
• Proper understanding of mental health of the teachers and the learners as well.
• Curriculum development and construction
• Measurement of teaching-learning outcomes, and evaluation of choice of methods of teaching by the teacher
• Guidance and counseling made possible in schools for the learners and teachers as well.
Promotion of positive attitudes among learners
• Understanding of group dynamics
Contributions to the Practice of Education:
• Problems of discipline in schools understood and tackled effectively by the teachers and administrators
• Use of technology in teaching in the classroom made possible
• Timetable planning by the teachers
• School and classroom administration made efficient
• Co-curricular activities arranged in the school
• Innovations in Education made easy and possible, especially in tea- ching-learning activities
• Production of teaching-learning materials, e.g. textbooks,
Contributions to the classroom teacher:
• Understanding himself/herself in context of the teaching profession
• Professional growth and development in the teaching profession
• Marking and grading of learners’ work
• Guidance and Counseling made possible in schools • Understanding of individual differences among children
• Judgment of the outcomes of teaching activities by the teacher
• Shaping the behaviors of learners
• Creation of positive learning environment suitable for learning
• Interpersonal relationships promoted among teachers and the learners and members of the community in the vicinity.
Question three
Brief notes on the following:
Observational Method:
• Means looking at oneself for collecting necessary data in research endea- vors or studies.
• Facts or data collected on a given phenomenon is based on overt beha- vior of the organism in order to locate the underlying problem.
• Facts collected gives indirectly the clues to mental condition of the orga- nism
• It may be direct or indirect
Naturalistic Observation method:
• Making observation for collecting data while the organism is in its natu- ral setting
• Subject under observation is made unaware of the on-going activities
• Teacher can observe children in class and do something more worthy, e.g. talents or potentials identified and put to good use for the benefit of the children themselves.
Case Study Method;
• Method of study by following one or groups of individuals of some similar characteristics over an extended period of time
• Focusing on identified variables
• Collecting detailed information about the individuals under study
• Involved in getting1) preliminary iformation, 2) past history,3)Present conditions.
Experimental Method:
• This is a method which involves manipulations of variable against ano- ther, so that objective results are obtained
• Involves thorough understanding, controlling and predicting outcomes in laboratory situations on behaviors of organism
• Experiment is always planned and systematic observations of treatment conditions, and later results are presented.
Limitations of any two methods
Experimental Method:
• Artificial conditions created
• Restrictive
• A small sample chosen, not the whole population of subjects selected
• Weak generalizations of the results to the whole population
• Unable to handle overt behaviors in laboratory situation
• Studies conducted mainly using animals, results not suitable to humans
• Time consuming to conduct
• Not all processes can be studied Ethical issues rampant
• Tools used are not always accurate
• Does not provide total information about behavior
Case Study Method:
• Relies heavily on past life of the organism and present experiences only
• Account of information may be suspect
• Information not easily verifiable
• Very subjective information collected
• Complex behaviors not easily studied or observed
• Personal prejudices or bias rampant
• It is highly intuitive or impressionistic
Observational method:
• Too may things taking place, hence difficult to isolate what is wanted
• Recording very difficult
• Many interferences in the field where the study is being conducted
• Personal limitations may obscure correct recordings
Naturalistic Observation:
• Natural setting difficult to control or design
• Organism free to move at any time, hence distorting data collection
• Organism free to change behavior
• Anecdotal recording plagued with problems
• Results are difficult to verify
IX. References
Anastasi, A; and Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological Testing. New Delhi. Pear- son Education.
Bird, L. (1999).’ Towards a more critical educational psychology’. Annual Review of Critical Psychology, 1, 21-33.
Chauhan, S.S. (1998). Advanced Educational Psychology. New Delhi. Vikas Publishing House.
Developmental Psychology-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology
Developmental Psychology
http://www.devpsy.org: Lesson from teaching and learning developmen- tal psychology
Educational Psychology.Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychology
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XX. Main author of the Module
The author of this module is Santo S. Auma-Okumu. He is currently a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Psychology. Kyambogo University, Uganda His interests are in Developmental Psychology, Research in Education, Beginning teachers’ Professional growth and development, and Guidance and Counseling. He has published a number of articles in local and international Journals. Cur- rently, he is the Head of the Department of Psychology, and is working on his PhD, at the Institute of Education, University of South Africa.
Contact Address Department of Psychology Kyambogo University
P.O.Box 1, Kyambogo, Uganda
Email address. wilobo_tek@yahoo.com Mobile: +256772453681